Academic Writing

What is academic writing?

Academic writing refers to the ability to understand certain words in a text. Characteristics of academic writing include formal tone, use of the third-person rather than first-person perspective, a clear focus on the research problem under investigation and precise word of choice.

Types of academic writing

There are four main types of academic writing

• Descriptive

It is the simplest type of academic writing. It purpose is to provide facts or information. An example would be a summary of an article or a report of the results of an experiment.

• Analytical

Analytical writing includes descriptive writing, but you also re-organize the facts and information you describe into categories, groups, parts or types.

• Persuasive

In most academic writing, you are required to go at least one step further than analytical writing, to persuasive writing. Persuasive writing has all the features of analytical writing with the addition of your own point of view. Most essays are persuasive and there is a persuasive element in at least the discussion and conclusion of a research article

•       Critical

Critical writing is common for research, postgraduate and advanced undergraduate writing. It has all the features of persuasive writing, with the added feature of at least one other point of view. While persuasive writing requires you to have your own point of view on an issue or topic, critical writing requires you to consider at least two points of view, including your own.

types of academic writing

Academic writing skills

Writers seeking to improve their academic writing skills should focus their effort on three key areas:

   1.Strong writing

Thinking precedes writing. Good writers spend time distilling information from their sources and reviewing major points before creating their work. Writing detailed outlines helps many authors organize their thoughts. Strong academic writing begins with solid planning.

2.Excellent grammar 

Learn the major and minor points of grammar. Spend time practicing writing and seek detailed feedback from teachers, professors or writers you respect. English grammar can be detailed and complex, but strong writers command the major points after many years of study and practice. Using a good writing reference, such as your dictionary, can provide advice on the more troublesome points of grammar.

3. Consistent stylistic approach

A person must choose one style and stick to it. Each style provides guidance on how to write out numbers, references, citations and more. 

academic writing skills

Features of academic writing

•      Complexity

Written language is relatively more complex than spoken language. Written language has longer words, it is lexical denser and it has a more varied vocabulary.

•      Formality

Academic writing is relatively formal. In general, this means that in an essay you should avoid colloquial words and expressions.

•      Precision

In academic writing, facts and figures are given precisely.

•     Objectivity

Written language is in general objective rather than personal. It therefore has fewer words that refer to the writer or the reader.

•     Explicitness

Academic writing is explicit about the relationship into the text. Furthermore, it is the responsibility of the writer in English to make it clear to the reader how the various parts of the text are related.

Strategies for academic writing

  Start as soon as possible
     Focus on the task at hand

  Be careful with your word choice

  Use short paragraphs

  Edit several times

academic writing strategies

The writing process

   Prewriting- prewriting is anything you do before you write a draft of your document.

  Drafting – it occurs when you put your ideas into paragraphs and sentences.

  Revising- here you think deeply about your readers needs and expectation.

  Editing- check for things as grammar, mechanics and spelling.

       

     Academic writing deals with how you structure, understand and analyse the text. In academic writing a person need to have the ability to write and read effectively and you have to follow all the rules of academic writing.

   References

• Hartley, James Academic writing and publishing: A Practical Guide. New York: Routledge, 2008.
• Christopher. Academic wriring step-by-step.Bristol, CT:Enquinox Publishing Ltd, 2016
• http://grammar.yourdictionary.com/style-and-usage/academic-writing-skills.html
• www.uefap.com/writing/feature/featfram.htm
• https://www.careeraddict.com/strategies-academic-writing

What is communication?

What is communication?

Communication is the process of sending and receiving messages through verbal or non-verbal communication, including speech, or oral communication; writing and graphical representation. In short communication is the exchange of information.

Types of communication

Sandra Cleary, Marcelle Harran (2003:18-20), distinguishes between the following types of communication.
i) Verbal communication
Verbal communication is simply sending a message through a spoken language that is understood by both the sender and the receiver of the message. It include face-to-face communication and listening to a lecture.

verbal communication picture

ii) Written communication
Written communication refers to the process of sending a message through the written symbols. In other words, any message exchanged between two or more persons that make use of written words is called as written communication. Written communication include memos, reports and emails.

example of written communication

iii) Non-verbal communication
Non-verbal communication also include body language that can be used to send a message. You can  tell if someone is pleased or upset simply by looking at his facial expression, posture and gestures. For example, rolling of one's eyes means being annoyed.

nonverbal communication 

The communication process
According to Sandra Cleary (2003:3-7), the communication process consists of several components:

                                                           video for communication cycle

i) Message
This is the background step to the process of communication. The message is what the sender and the receiver use to communicate, they communicate via a message.

ii) The sender
The actual process of communication is initiated at the hands of the sender; who takes steps to send the message to the recipient.

iii) Encoding
Encoding means giving a form and meaning to the message through expressing it to words, symbol, gestures, graph etc.

iv) Medium
It refers to the method or channel, through which the messages is to be conveyed to the recipient. For example, an oral communication might be made through the telephone etc.; while a written communication might be through a letter or a notice displayed on the notice board.

v) Recipient or the receiver
The receiver is the one who receives the message from the sender through medium. The receiver then need to give feedback.

vi) Decoding
Decoding means the interpretation of the message by the recipient with a view to getting the meaning of the message, as per the intentions of the sender. It is at this stage in the communication process, that communication is philosophically defined as the transmission of understanding.

vii) Feedback
To complete the communication process, sending feedback to communication, by the recipient to the sender is imperative. Feedback implies the reaction of the receiver to the message.

Barriers to communication

There are many barriers to communication and these may occur at any stage in the communication process.
i) Language barrier
However, even when communicating in the same language, the terminology used in a message may act as a barrier if it is not fully understood by the receiver(s).

                                                               video for language barrier

ii) Psychological barriers
The psychological state of the communicators will influence how the message is sent, received and perceived. For example if someone is stressed they may be preoccupied by personal concerns and not as receptive to the message as if they were not stressed. Anger is another example of a psychological barrier to communication. The picture above is an example of being stressed.

picture of psychological barriers

iii) Physiological barriers
This kind of barrier to communication may result from the receivers physical state. For example, a receiver with reduced hearing may not fully hear the content of a spoken conversation especially if there is significant background noise.

example of a physiological barrier; noise

iv) Attitudinal barriers
Attitudinal barriers are behaviors or perceptions that prevent people from communicating effectively. Attitudinal barriers to communication may result from personality conflict, poor management and lack of motivation.

All in all i can say communication is an important tool that we use daily in our lives and it somehow a key that unlocks all areas. Communication can take place between many people with different languages but at the end we must find a suitable language in order for communication to be effective.

References

• Sandra Cleary, Marcelle Harran, Jacqueline Luck. Communication A Hands-on Approach. 2003. Pretoria. Juta& Co. Ltd.2nd edition.
• www.yourarticlelibrary.com/business-communication/7-major elements -of-communication-process/25815
• https://www.skillsyouneed.com/ips/what-is-communication.html
• phicare.com/competencies/communicationbarriers.php
• Trenholm, Sarah; Jensen, Arthur (2013). Interpersonal Communication Seventh Edition. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 360-361.